Considering that international students are contributing £7 billion a year to UK universities and the country’s economy, several leading names from the academic and economic sectors called for urgent action to remove the international students from official immigration statistics. They also urged the authorities to change their rhetoric and policies and claimed that if this was not done, the existing policy would cause great damage to higher educational institutions and to the UK economy. According to the experts, when there is low funding from international students it will not only have negative effects on research funds but will also effect the possibility of entering higher education institutions for English students from the most disadvantaged backgrounds. These students will face difficulties in finding scholarships.

Trump’s US presidential election win sparked a hot debate among political analysts to estimate its effects on local and international politics. Some others have already started discussing how it would influence the higher education sector in the US. Trump’s xenophobic views and call for a ban on Muslims entering the US have pushed experts into pessimism since they realized the negative impact of this rhetoric on the internationalization of the higher educational institutions in the country. While the experts warned authorities about the undesirable effects of this rhetoric, it is reported that some of the international scholars who are teaching at US universities have already begun to revise their careers plans.

In a report in University World News dated November 11, 2016, Philip G. Altbach and Hans de Witt, two renowned experts in the field of higher education, pointed to three potential risks to the internationalization of the US higher education system under Trump. These risks are: a fall in the flow of international students to the US, the US becoming less attractive for international scholars due to the political climate, and a fall in donations from international graduates, an important revenue income for the higher institutions in the country. It will not be surprising to see that when international students and scholars face more stringent visa policies and Muslims are increasingly scrutinized by security services, it will result in potential students looking to other destinations where they can feel more comfortable and welcomed.

While it is still early to predict to what extent these risks will materialize, it is certain that many other countries will update their higher education policies and expectations for internationalization. The flow of international students and scholars, often defined based on push and pull models and pull-in factors, is still prevalent in the US and UK. The two countries still host the largest number of international students in the world. Recent political developments, however, point to an increased potential for push factors both in the US and the UK. Given the large body of international students, this may lead, although slowly, to a new break in terms of the international network of higher education and the emergence of new centers of attraction in the world. It is not difficult to claim that the countries, which are in an advantageous position in terms of internationalization of their higher education institutions, will implement proactive policies to attract more international students and scholars.

Turkey, a regional and global actor with its strong economy and great transformation in the higher education system, has the potential to take a strong place in this new formation. The Council of Higher Education (YÖK) in Turkey is working hard to develop joint projects with higher education institutions all around the world. Support programs of the Ministry of Economy for overseas education fairs, the priority given by the Ministry of Development to internationalization in higher education in state planning, Turkish scholarships and other grants provided by the Prime Ministry for Turks Abroad and Related Communities (YTB), and the Yunus Emre Institute’s branch offices in different regions of the world, have already made great contributions to the internationalization of higher education in the country. Turkey, which has no xenophobic record in its culture and historical trajectory when one compares it with the West, needs to develop a new stand that will turn the recent political developments in world politics to its favor. Turkey has the potential to become a safe and secure place for all international students and scholars, especially from Muslim countries. The current distribution of international students in Turkey, which varies greatly, reflects its potential and advantageous position in this regard.

Amidst perpetual perception boosting operations, Turkey should prepare itself for aggressive promotion campaigns that will explain to international students and scholars how Turkey is a safe destination for study, teaching, and research. Both public institutions and the Turkish academia have a greater responsibility than ever. The Office of Public Diplomacy should take a more active role in this process. To take the best advantage of this historic opportunity, it is more important now than ever that Turkish authorities urgently and systematically improve their policies to make the country a more attractive destination for international students and scholars.

Another substantial issue is that while encouraging the financial standing and productivity of academics, it is also necessary to deliberately build a higher education culture based on merits (a culture of meritocracy). Standards for academic positions are being raised and actions are taking place in accordance with these accepted standards. This, in fact appears like an assurance of all these investments. Otherwise, it seems difficult to maintain the sustainability of achievements.

Naturally, to be able to get better results in a short time and to implement the aforementioned projects rapidly, not all of a country’s higher education institutions, but according to their specialties only those which have the potential for making progress in a short time, should be allowed to participate in these projects, and as a result these institutions are ensured to be both stronger and visible in the world. For instance, in the first quarter of the 1990s, China invested $20 billion in about 100 universities under the name of “Project 211” in order to increase the enrollment rate in the higher education and to improve the quality of existing ones. Subsequently, from the last quarter of the 1990s on, within the framework of aforementioned priorities, China launched a new project titled “Project 985” initially targeting at ten elite universities, so as to strengthen the best universities in the country. They transferred additional funds to these chosen outstanding universities, such as the University of Beijing and Tsinghua, which received $225 million over five years.

In short, countries are investing heavily in higher education systems in order to get a strong position in the cultural, social and economic competition in the world. On one hand they facilitate access to higher education for their citizens, on the other hand they undertake a great number of projects for the purpose of becoming an important hub in the international scientific network. Although it seems each project is unrelated to others, they in fact feed each other, raise the synergy of the environment and therefore increase the likelihood of the country becoming a worldwide intellectual center.

In the last decade of our country’s history, the success stories in the field of higher education and especially the sincere efforts and experiences for aforementioned issues show that Turkey has the potential to achieve this goal. In this regard, the Council of Higher Education (YÖK), universities, political leadership, and other institutions and sectors seem quite willing to struggle and seek success. This is very promising for the future. Considering the grand goals of Turkey as an important actor in the region and in the world, it is certain that there is no escape from being one of the world’s most notable intellectual centers. For this reason, while observing the international experiences briefly outlined above, it is necessary to initiate large-scale projects and upgrade the road map to include higher achievable goals that will produce new success stories.

It is known that the number of foreign students in Turkey has been on the rise. According to data from the last 10 years, the number of international students remained level at about 15,000 until 2008. It has dramatically increased since YÖK actively has taken charge of the process and introduced regulations in procedures and implementations. The uptrend continues. For instance, the number of foreign students in Turkish higher education institutions in the 2013-2014 academic year was 48,183, but jumped to 72,178 in the 2014-2015 academic year and increased by 1.8 times and settled at 87,903 in the 2015-2016 academic year.

The number of foreign students enrolled in graduate programs in Turkish higher education institutions was 10,855 in the 2013-2014 academic year; the figure almost doubled and jumped to 22,721 in the 2015-2016 academic year. Therefore, the ratio of international students to the total number of students enrolled in Turkish graduate programs increased as well. This ratio was 3.3 percent in the 2013-2014 academic year and improved to 4.5 percent in the 2015-2016 academic year. Notwithstanding, the ratio of foreign students in total graduate programs across the world has hardly changed in the last years and remains almost at the level of 25 percent.

Turkey needs consolidation and rehabilitation in its internationalization of higher education. Internationalization of Turkish higher education lacks in-depth study, field studies in particular. Articles containing general assessments or short reports are seen more often. It is very difficult to administer the process without conducting field research and without observations from the field. More studies should be carried out in order to help policy makers to make the right decisions.

One of the most critical areas that needs rehabilitation is, beyond the total number of enrolled foreign students, the distribution of foreign students in undergraduate, graduate, and doctoral degree programs. International students in Turkey mostly concentrate on associate degree programs (approximately 6 percent) and bachelor’s degree programs (approximately 69 percent). In developed countries, however, the ratios of foreign students in graduate degree programs constitute higher percentages. The OECD’s Education at a Glance 2015 report indicates that the OECD average number of international students enrolled in bachelor’s or equivalent degree programs stood at 6 percent in 2013, but rose as the level of education increased, settling at 14 percent for master’s programs and reaching 24 percent for PhD programs.

In Turkey, however, the numbers of foreign students enrolled in bachelor’s, master’s, and PhD programs were 1 percent, 4 percent and 4 percent, respectively, in 2013. Having qualified international students in graduate programs amplifies research capacities in higher education institutions as it positively contributes to a country’s power of economic competition. Therefore, it is necessary for Turkey to concentrate more on the distribution of foreign students in higher education programs, develop new policies to this end, and accelerate the relevant implementations.

The percentage of foreign students in PhD programs in Turkey is one-sixth of the OECD average and this points to a significant issue. It seems that doctoral programs in Turkey are not attractive for international students. In fact, irrespective of the perceptions of the foreign students, master’s and PhD programs in Turkey need improvement. Although the problems of master’s and PhD programs and solution recommendations are not the topic of this article, the situation involving these programs must be promptly addressed and remedial steps must be taken.

The problems involving PhD programs in Turkey were presented in a report titled “Views on the Status of PhD Education” by the Turkish Academy of Sciences (TÜBA) in 2006. Apparently, the same problems still exist today. The number of master’s students increased from 92,862 in the years covered in the report to 417,084, and the number of PhD students from 27,393 to 86,094 in the 2015-2016 academic year. Again, the number of PhD graduates remained between 2,000 and 2,500 in the same years, and the current figure has risen to 4,500-5,000. However, the number of graduates has not increased as expected, though the numbers of master’s students and faculty members have increased considerably.

According to the same report, one master’s student graduated per one or two faculty members, and one PhD student graduated per 10 or 11 faculty members. The data for the academic years of 2013-2014 and 2014-2015 reveal almost no change for master’s programs, but the situation worsened for PhD programs to one PhD graduate per 13 or 14 faculty members. The ratio of the number of graduate students enrolled to the number of graduate degrees granted was calculated in the same report. The ratio was four for master’s degree programs, while it was 10 for PhD programs. It is stated that the difference stems from the prolongation of postgraduate education programs. The difference is even wider today. For instance, the ratio for master’s programs increased to approximately six in the 2013-2014 academic year (262,752/41,842) and to approximately eight in the 2014-2015 academic year (342,101/43,713). As for PhD programs, the ratio increased to approximately 15 in the 2013-2014 academic year (65,864/4,516) and to approximately 16 in the 2014-2015 academic year (78,223/4,910).

PhD programs are the education programs that have multiple effects. Quality and quantity problems in doctoral degree programs negatively affect many areas involving R&D activities in our higher education system and our country. To maintain the enormous growth of recent years in our higher education system, an in-depth discussion of doctoral education is necessary. Additionally, the quality of these programs must be improved and immediate measures must urgently be taken in order to increase the number of PhD graduates. To this end, TÜBA must play an active role and develop solutions. In particular, opening graduate level courses with languages of instruction completely in English, French, and Arabic is a must. The international recognition of Turkish higher education institutions must be achieved and encouraged as well. Efforts in this direction will naturally have a positive effect on the number of international students enrolled in Turkish higher education and increase their capability to conduct joint international research projects.

One of the issues that needs improvement is the scarcity of international students and faculty members in the universities of good reputation in education and research capabilities. The number of international students in leading universities around the world has a good share in the total number of students. For instance, the ratio of foreign students to the total number of students is 62 percent at the London School of Economics, 33 percent at MIT, 21 percent at Stanford, and 17 percent at Harvard. In the academic year of 2013-2014, a sizeable portion of international students in Turkey (3,051 students, 6.33 percent) were enrolled at Istanbul University; however, this figure amounts to 2.37 percent of the total number of students enrolled at the same university.

The countrywide distribution also reveals that international students in Turkey are mostly from neighboring and Turkic-language countries. Turkmenistan topped the list, followed by Azerbaijan and Iran in the 2013-2014 academic year. However, Turkey receives very few foreign students from the countries sending the highest numbers of students abroad, and the ratio of the students Turkey receives from these countries is very low compared to the total number of students it sends abroad. The international fair promotion support provided by the Ministry of Economy should be used more actively and extensively, targeting these countries in particular.

On the other hand, the number of foreign faculty members in Turkish higher education institutions steadily increases. Still, this is a small number. According to the last 10 years’ data, the total number of foreign faculty members stood at 1,057 in the 2006-2007 academic year and increased by approximately 2.9 times, settling at 3,114 in the 2015-2016 academic year. The number of faculty members coming from other countries to teach in Turkish universities is approximately 2 percent of the total number of faculty members. Turkey must urgently take measures in the matter. YÖK has recently launched the Foreign Academics Information System (YABSIS) to this end. This is a joint project run by YÖK and the Turkish Prime Ministry to primarily create a database of foreign academics and researchers (who had to immigrate to Turkey due to natural disasters and wars), by compiling their job applications, and providing assistance to them to find employment in Turkish higher education institutions in accordance with the relevant procedures. It is reported that the scope of the online portal will be broadened to take in applications from all foreign academics and researchers who are willing to work in Turkey.

It is good news to highlight the efforts towards the internationalization of Turkish higher education institutions. Universities in Turkey are known to have international cooperation and almost every university puts effort into this. References to the numbers of foreign students and faculty members and of international agreements signed by each university are included in advertising and promotion campaigns. However, it is also the case that these efforts are limited to programs involving the mobility of foreign students and faculty members. The number of students in the Erasmus exchange program coming into Turkey is lower than Turkish students going abroad via the same program.

In the last 10 years, from 2004 to 2014, a total of 23,109 Erasmus students attended Turkish higher education programs as opposed to 74,231 Turkish students who joined Erasmus programs abroad. On the other hand, similar exchange programs do not seem to boost joint research programs among universities, and problems exist in this regard. So, this needs to be investigated thoroughly. It is critical for national initiatives to take action in this direction. The Ministry of Development, regional development agencies, and new support programs of the Scientific and Technological Research Council of Turkey (TÜBİTAK) should provide more assistance to the process, develop more international projects, and make more contributions to the development of such projects. All and all, this will mean a crucial step in regional development.

Herewith, Turkey has taken critical steps in recent years to strengthen the internationalization of its higher education system. The enrollment ratio in Turkish higher education has also increased, together with the recent remarkable growth in higher education; at present, Turkish higher education experiences the internationalization phase in a similar fashion. Therefore, the state of higher education today is not independent from that of yesteryears. Although Turkey falls behind other countries in terms of developments in higher education, it is extremely encouraging to see that higher education institutions attach importance to internationalization while competing with one another, and that they are eager in the subject matter.

From the Ministry of Economy to the Ministry of Development, from YÖK to YTB and the Yunus Emre Institute, all shareholders contribute significantly to the internationalization process of Turkish higher education, being aware of the importance of this process to our country. For sound management of the internationalization of higher education institutions, Turkey needs to put forth more effort and conduct studies to closely follow similar processes, developments, and good examples around the world, and to provide venues for constant improvement by taking the potential and opportunities of our country into consideration.

In the last decade, the number of higher education institutions has tripled and the number of students has doubled.

The number of applicants to the Student Selection and Placement Center (ÖSYM) in 2010 was approximately 1.6 million; as of 2016, it has increased to a record level of 2.26 million. Universities are now being established not only in populous towns but also in smaller towns. However, the rapid growth of higher education in Turkey has led to an array of problems varying from the quality of the universities to the inadequate number of qualified doctorate-level graduates each year to balance out the growth. The growth has also paved the way for new discussions and solution approaches to these problems.

Sound discussion of recent developments is vital for the exploration and recommendation of new mechanisms and approaches, to allow for healthy growth in the higher education sector. Considering the ongoing increase in demand, it is predicted that such growth in higher education will continue in the coming years. Therefore, it is neither rational nor realistic to suggest mechanisms to curb or disrupt this growth based on, for instance, quality-related arguments. Instead, potential problems or those created by the delayed massive demand for higher education should be recognized in advance, and mechanisms to solve such problems should be promptly put into effect.

In terms of the sustainability of growth, in-depth and comprehensive research must be conducted in all areas of higher education, projections for the future made via research findings, and policies developed and implemented. In this context academics, in particular, as leading actors of higher education who are directly affected by this process, should take active roles. They should always be a step ahead of lawmakers, conduct scientific research in order to provide venues for lawmakers to reach healthy decisions, and share their research results with the public and other shareholders.

The ways in which such an expansion in higher education affects women in terms of access and employment is the crux of this article. In this context, utilizing the data for the last 15 years I would like to compare female and male access to higher education and vocational higher education; furthermore, I present data on the employment of female academics. (An earlier and brief version of the current paper in Turkish has appeared on the Education Column of Hürriyet Newspaper on April 10, 2016).

Participation in Labor Force Increases as Level of Education Rises

As the level of education rises in the world, both the ratio of employability and wages are known to increase also. This is valid for both men and women. There is a similar trend in Turkey. According to the report entitled “Women in Statistics – 2015” released by the Turkish Statistical Institute (TUIK), the ratio of participation in the labor force was 16 percent among illiterate women in 2014. It was 25.8 percent among women with less than high school education, 31.9 percent among female high school graduates, 39.8 percent among women with vocational or technical high school qualifications and 71.3 percent among women with college degrees. That is to say, the employability ratio among women increases as their level of education rises.

That is to say, the employability ratio among women increases as their level of education rises.

On the other hand, according to the Income and Living Conditions Survey 2014 results -cited in the aforementioned report- a working woman with the same educational level as a working man earns less. This income difference decreases as the level of education rises among women. Thus, an increase in the number of female university graduates increases the ratio of their employability and reduces the risk of lower income for women.

Together with the recent growth in higher education, data from the last 15 years reveals a steady rise in the number of female university students in proportion to the total number of students, especially in recent years. The percentage of female university students, which was approximately 40 percent in 2000, rose to 44 percent in 2010 and to 46 percent in 2015. The total number of university students stood at 6,062,886 in the same year, 2,786,228 of whom were female students. Considering only female higher education students, the data shows that the number of female students increased from 605,308 in 2000 to 1,566,701 in 2010 (an increase of 2.6 times) and to 2,786,228 in 2015 (an increase of 4.6 times).

Female Schooling Rates in Higher Education are Noteworthy

It can be argued that the policy of establishing a university in each city has made it possible for the children of many families to attend college in their home cities -especially for those with social concerns and limited incomes who find it difficult to send their children to other cities for higher education– and this has also clearly facilitated women’s access to higher education. Considering the net schooling ratio of genders in higher education, a dramatic increase can be observed in the schooling ratio of females. According to data from the TUIK, the net schooling ratio (in higher education) in 2000 was 12.27 percent (both men and women combined) and 11.38 percent for females. The ratio jumped to 33.06 percent (both men and women combined) and to 32.65 percent for females in 2010. The data for 2013 and 2014 appears more striking: the net schooling ratio for females in higher education settled at 40.9 percent and at 38.9 percent for males, revealing that the schooling ratio for women outpaced that of males for the first time. All in all, women have benefited very well from the expansion in higher education, and it is evident that this is having a positive impact on the schooling ratio in higher education for females.

All in all, women have benefited very well from the expansion in higher education, and it is evident that this is having a positive impact on the schooling ratio in higher education for females.

According to the TUIK report “Women in Statistics – 2015”, only 13.9 percent of the total population graduated from higher education institutions (either universities or college-level vocational schools). The figure is 16.2 percent among men and 11.7 percent among women. As the figures tell, the ratio of university graduates in Turkey is still low, not only among women but also among men. However, considering the data of the last 15 years, the proportion of female university graduates increased from 42 percent in 2000 to 46 percent in 2010, and to 49 percent in 2015. Among the total of 803,760 university graduates in 2015, 394,581 were female. On the other hand, the ratio of female university graduates increased from 95,196 in 2000 to 263,737 in 2010 (an increase of 2.7 times) and to 394,581 in 2015 (an increase of 4.1 times). The corresponding increase in the realizations of the ratios of female students in higher education in the periods 2000-2010 and 2000-2015, and of the ratios of female university graduates during the same periods is interesting to note.

Women’s Access to Vocational Higher Education

Education in general, and vocational education specifically, plays a key role in the development of a country. The empowering of vocational education implies tremendous contributions to the development and the competitive power of countries. In this context, Turkey has recently intensified efforts for the modernization of vocational education as a means of solving its problems, improving the quality of education and seeking adaptation with the EU countries. The 10th Development Plan underlines the significance of upgrading vocational education from the level of secondary schools to the level of Post-Secondary Vocational Schools (MYOs).

Turkey has recently intensified efforts for the modernization of vocational education as a means of solving its problems, improving the quality of education and seeking adaptation with the EU countries.

All of these recommendations, regulations and synchronous capacity increases have yielded a substantial increase in the number of MYO students, and the students in MYOs comprise considerably high percentages of the total numbers of students in higher education. As the number of female students in proportion to the total number of students in higher education increases, the number of female students in associate degree programs at MYOs increases as well. The ratio of female students in associate degree programs increased from 45 percent in 2000 to 47 percent in 2015. Among the total of 2,013,762 students in associate degree programs, there are 950,939 female students. A closer examination of the female students reveals that the total number increased from 163,429 in 2000 to 455,275 in 2010 (an increase of 2.8 times) and to 950,939 in 2015 (an increase of 5.8 times).

Female Academics Doing Relatively Better

With regard to female academics, a relatively rosy picture is seen. The ratio of female academics in proportion to the total number of academics was 35 percent in 2000, which increased to 41 percent in 2010 and to 43 percent in 2015. The total number of academics in 2015 settled at 148,903, 64,123 of whom were females. Similarly, a closer look at the increasing numbers of female academics reveals that there were 23,099 female academics in 2000, rising to 43,131 in 2010 (an increase of 1.9 times) and to 64.123 in 2015 (an increase of 2.8 times). In the same period, the number of male academics increased at a slower pace (by 1.5 times in 2000-2010 and by approximately 2 times in 2000-2015).

As the percentage of female research assistants was 38 percent in 2000, this figure increased to 48 percent in 2010 and to 50 percent in 2015. Given the numbers of research assistants hoping for an academic future, the numbers and ratios of female academics are predicted to increase exponentially in the upcoming years. Therefore, the growth in higher education has expanded the employment of female academics. It is also the case that the number of female administrators in universities is increasing as well, though still insufficiently.

The rise in the level of education triggers the rise in employment of women in Turkey.

In conclusion, the rise in the level of education triggers the rise in employment of women in Turkey. In addition, the lower wages for women, compared to those for men, follow a positive trend, decreasing the wage differences as the level of education rises among women. A higher level of education for women is, of course, desirable beyond employment concerns. The activities, productivity and appearance of women in society are heightened as their level of education rises. It is seen clearly that the recent tremendous growth in higher education in Turkey is also instrumental in increasing women’s access to higher education, either as students or as academics.

The developments in higher education in recent years have contributed tremendously to meeting the demand for higher education and increasing the schooling ratio. It is seen that the recent rise in the supply of higher education has triggered women’s access to higher education in the last decade at an unpredictable level, though it was particularly low in the 2000s, and has dramatically increased the demand for higher education from women in various sectors. It seems that this demand is quite sensitive to supply.

The policy of ‘a university in each province’ has played a significant role in this development. Nonetheless, extensive field research is needed in provinces and regions in order to give a sound interpretation of the data. Keeping in mind that an increase in education level encourages an increase in employability, fierce competition is predicted in the coming years between female and male academics for a share of the employment pie. Accordingly, the visibility of women in various professions will also increase. However, we have a long way to go before seeing major changes in the number of women who serve as senior administrators at higher education institutions.