Turkey is seeking to counter the Western and neo-colonial influence in the African continent by its increasing economic as well as political presence in the continent. The latest visit by President Erdoğan to strategic countries in Central and West Africa has cemented this vision set by Ankara. Erdogan’s commitment in strengthening the ties between Turkey and Africa is demonstrated since 2004 in the 50 plus trips to the continent and the 30 visits he made to African states.

In his four-day visit to Central and West Africa, Turkish president Recep Tayyip Erdoğan aimed to boost economic as well as political relations with strategic African countries, following the roadmap designed in the Turkish relations with Africa for 2022 to 2026. Last October, Erdoğan’s four-day diplomatic tour included Angola, Nigeria, and Togo. Also, in October 2021, Istanbul hosted ministers from African countries and business leaders in a summit which aimed particularly at boosting trade between Turkey and African nations.

In his African tour, Erdoğan has visited the Democratic Republic of the Congo, Guinea-Bissau and Senegal. Erdoğan’s visit to Guinea-Bissau was the first-ever presidential visit from Turkey to Guinea-Bissau. In Congo, a cooperation deal on the defense industry, a military framework agreement and a protocol on financial aid were signed between both sides.

In Senegal, Erdoğan and his Senegalese counterpart President Macky Sall attended Turkiye-Senegal Business Forum in Dakar, where Erdoğan said that his target to increase the bilateral trade volume between the two countries from $400 till $1 billion. Erdoğan highlighted that despite the coronavirus pandemic, the trade volume in 2021 jumped 42% year-on-year to $540 million.

Erdoğan said his target is to increase the bilateral trade volume between Turkey and Senegal from $400 till $1 billion.

Since 2007, The Turkish Cooperation and Coordination Agency (TIKA), has completed around 190 projects in Senegal. In terms to the cultural relations between the two countries, the Turkish Maarif Foundation has provided education to almost 800 students in Senegal.

Because of its geographical location, Senegal is an export gateway to West African countries.

In his visit to Kinshasa, the capital of the DRC, the two countries have signed agreements to enhance cooperation in various fields, including a military framework agreement, a protocol on financial aid and a cooperation deal on the defense industry. Erdoğan who was accompanied by a delegation of Turkish businessmen and government officials.

President of Democratic Republic of Congo Felix Tshisekedi described the cooperation agreements with Turkey as “win-win” deals, adding that Congo has sought Turkish support in the fight against militia groups active in the east of the DRC.

In the last 20 years, the number of Turkish embassies in Africa has risen from 12 to 43, with the aim is to increase it to 50, according to the Turkish vision and the country’s policy of “Strategic Africa,” launched by Erdoğan in 2003. As the European Union is the first trading partner and the first investor in Africa according to Ursula von der Leyen, president of the European Commission, the trade between Turkey and the African continent has increased to $25.3 billion in the past decade, after it commissioned the Africa Opening in 2005, and compared to only $5.4 billion in 2003.

Ankara has a commitment to increase this bilateral trade to more than $50bn in next coming years. Additionally, Turkish Airlines has become a key player in African countries, providing services to more than 60 destinations, while putting Istanbul a central destination for intercontinental travel.

Turkey has highlighted that Western countries have exploited the Africa continent for decades for their own imperialist interests. In that respect, in contrast to the American and European approaches, and the former as well as new Western imperialism in Africa, Turkey’s business and political approaches to the African countries have focused on development and cultural projects.

Elif Comoğlu Ulgen, the Turkish Ambassador to South Africa said that Turkey is in the continent with a win-win strategy and Africans see Turkey as a country not coming to the continent with any colonial baggage. On the other hand, since the fifties, the terms of engagement of the EU with African states was determined without consultation with Africans.

Addressing Angola’s parliament last October, Erdoğan stated that “As Turkey, we reject western-centred orientalist approaches to the African continent”. In his criticism to the UN Security Council framework and hierarchy, Erdoğan highlighted that 1.3 billion people live on the African continent however they are not represented at the Security Council.

As Turkey, which is described by Erdoğan as an “Afro-Eurasian state,” positions itself as a fairer and strategic alternative ally for African nations, its policy in the continent has become under the spotlight especially by the former imperialist states which could view its new position as a threat to their economic and political influence in the continent.

A new and strategic actor in Africa, Turkey has intensified its military cooperation as well as political, economic and cultural ties with most of the African countries. Since labelling 2005 the “Year of Africa”, Turkey has built strong relations across Africa, this vision even goes back to 1998, when Turkey’s African Initiative Policy process started, and when Turkey became an observing member of the African Union in 2005 and 2008. Turkey’s African Initiative Policy has then developed in 2013 to become Africa Partnership Policy.

Political relations has developed between Turkey and Africa in the last two decades, as during Turkish President Recep Tayyip Erdoğan Erdoğan era 31 new embassies have opened and the total number of Turkish embassies in Africa has increased from 12 in 2002 to 43 in 2021, which will soon reach 44 embassies, with the opening of the Turkish embassy in Guinea-Bissau.

In addressing the Angolan parliament this year, Erdogan described Turkey as an “Afro-Eurasian state”. Additionally, Turkey has established joint Business Councils with 45 African countries and 40 Sub-Saharan African countries.

Ankara is now preparing for the third Turkey-Africa Partnership Summit, which will take place in Istanbul on 17^th and 18^th December 2021, a summit discussed by Turkish Foreign Minister Mevlüt Çavuşoğlu and Moussa Faki Mahamat, Chairperson of the Commission of the African Union, during his visit to Ankara in September, 2021.

When it comes to trade and investment, the Turkey-Africa Economic and Business Forum has facilitated to increase the economic ties between both parties. Turkey’s trade with African countries have reached $25.3 billion by 2020 from $5.4 billion in 2003 when Erdogan came to power.

In addition to trade, investment and cultural projects in Africa, security and military cooperation have cemented the relations between Turkey and many African influential countries.

According to the Turkish president, Ankara is determined to raise the bilateral trade figure with Africa to $50 billion. The Turkish Ministry of Foreign Affairs, stated that the volume of projects undertook by Turkish contracting companies in the African Continent has reached $71.1 billion and reached $19.5 billion in the Sub-Saharan African countries.

The military cooperation also has extended to Chad – during the visit of the transitional President Mahamat Idriss Deby to Ankara, last month, Erdogan stated that Turkey will develop cooperation with Chad in the military and security fields, beside the bilateral trade which has reached $112 million and expected to double in the near future. Chad is currently undertaking the periodical presidency of the G5 Sahel and the Community of Sahel–Saharan States.

Ethiopian Prime Minister Abiy Ahmed signed a military and financial cooperation deal with Ankara, during his visit in August this year to Turkey. Ambassador Dina Mufti, the Ethiopia ministry of foreign affairs spokesman, told Anadolu Agency that Ethiopia, Africa’s second-most populous country, would accept if Turkey played a role in mediating in the border dispute between Sudan and Ethiopia. Turkey is also a commercial player in Ethiopia, as $2.5bn has been invested in Ethiopia out of a total of $6bn already invested by Turkish companies in sub-Saharan Africa.

In Sudan, before the current political crisis, the bilateral trade volume between Turkey and Sudan was expected to reach $2 billion, as Sudan has become the sixth largest export Turkish partner in Africa

From Sudan to Niger, a cooperation agreement has been signed between Ankara and Niamey which allowed Ankara a military presence in the country in July 2020. Turkey has signed agreements on military cooperation, sports, and youth during Cavusoglu’s visit to Niger, and during his visit to Togo, agreements were signed concerning cooperation in defense.

In North Africa, Turkey has been involved in trade and defense in the region, providing support for the UN-backed administration in Libya. In its neighbor, Algeria has become Turkey’s second largest trading partner in Africa after Egypt, with exchanges that reached $4.2 billion in 2020, and with expectations that the two countries will expand trade to $5 billion in 2021, exceeding Egypt, thanks to the agreement Turkey has signed with Algeria, the “Friendship and Cooperation Agreement with Algeria”.

In a military deal between Morocco and the Turkish manufacturer Baykar, Ribat has received the first units of Turkey’s Bayraktar TB2 unmanned combat aerial vehicles (UCAVs). Additionally, the Royal Moroccan Armed Forces (FAR) attended a training program in Turkey in July according to media reports. The Turkish military technology and products will now compete with the French market in the North African, as Morocco has been long been using the French Heron drones.

The year 2021 is seeing regional repositioning of power, competition, and strategic alignment. A series of normalization moves have taken place between Saudi Arabia and Iran, Egypt and Turkey, Saudi Arabia and Qatar, Turkey and the UAE, and Turkey and Sudan, which would have been impossible a few months back. Since 2011, whoever is in the White House has been focusing more on U.S. primacy than the concerns of Washington’s traditional allies. This U.S. policy has directly affected the Middle East and Africa.

Sudan, which has been affected by these transformations since 2019, is not an exception. Even though Sudan suffers from economic challenges, primary among which is inflation, the administration in Khartoum is decisive in diversifying foreign policy alternatives and intensifying cooperation with regional actors. In this manner, the chairman of Sudan’s Sovereign Council Abdel Fattah al-Burhan visited Turkey on August 12-13 to expand the cooperation between the two countries. Official Sudanese statements show that Khartoum is eager to cooperate with Ankara. It is the first-ever visit of Sudan to Turkey at the head of the state level since the country witnessed popular protests against the ousted president Omar al-Bashir in 2019.

Gradual Coherence

Turkey-Sudan relations had reached advanced stages during the term of ousted president Omar al-Bashir. However, after the dismissal of al-Bashir, there was a decline in this relationship, especially politically. What is more, Ankara-Khartoum relations were adversely affected by developments in Sudan. As for regional issues, the two countries had adopted opposite approaches. For example, whereas Turkey supported the Government of National Accord (GNA) in Libya, mercenaries from Sudan fought for Khalifa Haftar. Later, a gradual coherence was observed between the two parties.

Turkish President Erdoğan paid three visits to Sudan in 2006 and 2017. Whether during his prime ministership or presidency, Sudan remained in Erdoğan’s geopolitical vision of Africa. During these visits, the bilateral relations were strengthened by the signing of several agreements. In 2020, Mohamed Hamdan Dagalo, the vice president of Sudan’s Transition Council, visited Turkey. In April 2021, Vice President of Turkey Fuat Oktay visited Niger where he met with Dagalo.

The photos of the meeting indicate that the Oktay-Dagalo meeting took place in a very warm atmosphere. In his statement, Vice President Oktay reiterated that Turkey wishes to deepen and broaden the two countries’ bilateral relations. Moreover, Turkey’s President Erdoğan talked over the phone with Burhan many times to discuss potential cooperation, and successive visits followed.

Possible Cooperation Areas

During the latest visit of Sudanese officials to Turkey, six memoranda of understanding and agreements from energy to media were signed. As a result, we can expect intense bilateral cooperation between the two countries in the near future. During my field research in Khartoum from March to June of this year, I encountered many Sudanese who are closely following Turkish foreign policy vis-à-vis Africa. Turkey has embraced almost every African country even though there is a strong anti-Turkey propaganda in the Middle East.

Strategic Calculations

The deepening of bilateral ties will provide several strategic benefits to both Turkey and Sudan. Right now, Turkey has been standing by the Sudanese transition government. Turkey refrains from addressing sensitive topics with Sudan like the overthrowing of Omar al-Bashir by non-democratic means. This policy paves the way for Sudan to reach out and reapproach Turkey. The recent visit by al-Burhan, the highest-ranking Sudanese official, to Turkey where he met with President Erdoğan shows that the Sudanese transitional government, which distanced itself from Turkey for a long time after the coup, has realized that it must diversify its foreign policy.

The visit of Sudanese officials to Turkey is linked to the recent Ethiopian official visit to Turkey. There is strategic strangulation in the Egypt-Ethiopia-Sudan triangle. Serhat Orakçı, an analyst of African politics, told Politics Today that there are three reasons for the increasing tensions between Egypt and Sudan on the one hand, and Ethiopia on the other hand. These are border disputes, the unsettled issue of water resources, and Ethiopia’s Tigray crisis.

None of the efforts by international or regional organizations to reconcile the parties of the conflicts and resolve these issues could lead towards a lasting peace and settlement. Therefore, each party is trying to maximize its material and diplomatic cooperation with relevant regional actors. With this view, Sudan views having good relations with Turkey as part of reinforcing its strategic capabilities.

It is well known that during Omar al-Bashir’s rule, Turkey-Sudan relations were strong. With the new government in Khartoum, though, bilateral relations suffered a setback. Now, it appears that Sudan is more interested in cooperation with Turkey. The latest visit by Sudanese officials to Turkey is an important indicator of this interest. It is most likely the heavy diplomatic efforts made by Ethiopia to approach Turkey might be behind Sudan’s increasing interest in Ankara.

Sudan Needs Turkey’s Support

The recent months have shown that Ethiopia, which is under pressure from the West, is eager to upgrade its bilateral relations with Turkey from an ordinary level to a strategic one. By deepening its ties with Turkey in terms of military cooperation, Ethiopia wants to strengthen its military power. Sudan hasn’t remained silent either. This atmosphere has forced Sudan to move closer towards Turkey. When we compare Sudan’s will to reach out to Turkey, it is Sudan that is more interested in increasing its bilateral cooperation. Sudan could also ask Ankara to play a mediator role in the deadlock between conflicting parties.

The political trajectory of Sudan shows that it wants to escape from the hold of the UAE. The UAE has been trying to build a new regional order in which there is no room for any democratic transition unless the political elite in the region obeys Abu Dhabi. Therefore, by upgrading its relations with Turkey, Sudan wants to balance its relationship with the UAE and Egypt without abandoning them. This policy could be described as a hedging game: Sudan is hedging itself against the UAE and Egypt by getting closer to Turkey. Therefore, Sudan wants to become more independent and exit its isolation by approaching Turkey. The recent visit by Sudanese officials to Turkey can be seen as a clear message from policymakers in Khartoum indicating Sudan’s will to maneuver its foreign policy.

Sudan wants to build an allyship relationship with Turkey. Since 2016, Turkey has conducted several successful military operations in Syria and Iraq. Ankara has contributed to changing the balance of power in the Middle East. The American political scientist Francis Fukuyama argued that Turkey’s drones are a game-changer and are transforming unconventional warfare into more complex ideas in the world. Sudan looks up to Turkey’s highly successful military industry. Furthermore, Turkey is not just powerful militarily, but also in terms of its democratic legacy and institutions. Therefore, if Sudan’s new political elites decide to transform the country, Turkey is the best example to look up to.

The latest visit of Sudanese officials to Ankara will leave a positive impact on bilateral relations, which could be upgraded to strategic cooperation. It seems that Sudan wants to turn a new page in its relations with Turkey; however, Turkey-Sudan relations should not be expected to reach the strength of the relations during the Omar al-Bashir era in a short time as a significant role will be played by actors, such as the UAE, who are uncomfortable with this rapprochement. Nevertheless, such a development can create a win-win situation for both countries. In the meantime, Ankara’s doors are always open for strengthening bilateral relations with Sudan.